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Using the Empowerment Scale with Unemployed People in Lifelong Learning: Is the Tool Sound and Useful?
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Abstract
Empowerment is a widely used construct in research on social work, mental health and community interventions, but has only been exploited indirectly with the unemployed. But job finding is an important dimension of empowerment and could be used to test the accuracy of the concept and of its measures. The Making Decisions Empowerment Scale was used with 97 unemployed people who had been jobless for 6 months. Even though the psychometric qualities of the 5 subscales and the total scale were mixed, convergent and discriminant validity with several adaptive and non-adaptive dimensions could be established for the global scale and for the Esteem, Power, Control and, to a lesser degree, the Activism subscales. The results were only marginally better for the 28 items global scale compared to the 9 items Esteem scale. Empowerment could be adequately modelled by using three dimensions: change coping, depression, and chance control of unemployment. Comparing 6 months later those who had found a job with the still unemployed, the 2 groups differed significantly on 2 of the 5 subscales (Activism and Control) though not on the total empowerment scale, nor on the other psychometric scales. The results throw some doubt on the accuracy of an aggregate measure that sums up divergent dimensions. Instead, it is proposed that more specific and individualized constructs be used, at least in unemployment research.  Â
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Keywords: unemployment; empowerment; job search; scale
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Meyers, R., Pignault, A., & Houssemand, C. (2017). Using the Empowerment Scale with Unemployed People in Lifelong Learning: Is the Tool Sound and Useful?. New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(4). Retrieved from https://un-pub.eu/ojs/index.php/pntsbs/article/view/1158
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References
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Edwards, J. R. (1992). A cybernetic theory of stress, coping, and well-being in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 17, 238-274.
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Gibson, C. H. (1991). A concept analysis of empowerment. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16, 354-361. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.1991.tb01660.x
Goldberg, D. (1972). The detection of psychiatric illness by questionnaire. London: Oxford University Press.
Guppi, A., Edwards, J. A., Brough, P., Peters-Bean, K. M., Sale, C. & Short, E. (2004). The psychometric properties of the short version of the Cybernetic Coping Scale: A multigroup confirmatory factor analysis across four samples. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 39-62. doi:10.1348/096317904322915900
Hasluck, C. (2004). Targeting services in the individual customer strategy: The role of profiling. A review of research evidence. Warwick, UK: Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick.
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Kosciulek, J. F. & Merz, M. A. (2001). Structural analysis of the consumer-directed theory of empowerment. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 44, 209-216. doi:10.1177/003435520104400403
Latka, M. H., Metsch, L. R., Mizuno, Y., Tobin, K., Mackenzie, S., Arnsten, J. H. & Gourevitch, M. N. (2006). Unprotected sex among HIV-positive injection drug-using women and their serodiscordant male partners: role of personal and partnership influences. Journal of AIDS, 42, 222-228. doi:10.1097/01.qai.0000214813.50045.09
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Liebowitz, M. R. (1987). Social phobia. Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141-173.
Lucas, R. E., Clark, A. E., Georgellis, Y., & Diener, E. (2004). Unemployment alters the set point for life satisfaction. Psychological Science, 15, 8-13. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01501002.x
McKee-Ryan, F. M., Song, Z., Wanberg, C. R. & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: a meta-analytic study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 53-76. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.53
Perkins, D. D. (1995). Speaking truth to power: empowerment ideology as social intervention and policy. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 765-794. doi:10.1007/BF02506991
Provencher, H. L., Gregg, R., Mead, S. & Mueser, K. T. (2002). The role of work in the recovery of persons with psychiatric disabilities. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 26, 132-144. doi:10.2975/26.2002.132.144
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306
Rogers, E. S., Chamberlin, J., Ellison, M. L. & Crean, T. (1997). A consumer-constructed scale to measure empowerment among users of mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 48, 1042-1047.
Rogers, E. S., Ralph, R. O. & Salzer, M. S. (2010). Validating the Empowerment Scale among with a multi-site sample of consumers of mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 61, 933-936. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.9.933
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self Image. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Sapnas, K. G. & Zeller, R. A. (2002). Minimizing sample size when using exploratory factor analysis for measurement. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 10, 135–154. doi:10.1891/jnum.10.2.135.52552
Sarason, I. G., Levine, H. M., Basham, R. B. & Sarason, B. R. (1983). Assessing social support: the Social Support Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 127-139. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127
Sherer, M., Maddux, J. Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. (1982). The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663-671. doi:10.2466/pr0.1982.51.2.663
Spreitzer, G. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 1442-1465. doi:10.2307/256865
Taris, T. W. (2002). Unemployment and mental health: A longitudinal perspective. International Journal of Stress Management, 9, 43-57. doi:10.1023/A:1013067101217
Townsend, E. (1998). Good intentions overruled: A critique of empowerment in the routine organization of mental health services. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
Wallston, K. A., Wallston, B. S. & DeVellis, R. (1978). Development of the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MDHL) Scales. Health Education Monographs, 6, 160-170. doi:10.1177/109019817800600107
Wowra, S. A. & McCarter, R. (1999). Validation of the Empowerment Scale with an outpatient mental health population. Psychiatric Services, 50, 959-961.
Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 581-599. doi:10.1007/BF02506983
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Toward a theory of learned hopefulness: A structural model analysis of participation and empowerment. Journal of Research in Personality, 24, 71-86. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(90)90007-S
Zimmerman, M. A. & Rappaport, J. (1988). Citizen participation, perceived control, and psychological empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 725-750. doi:10.1007/BF00930023
Aujoulat, I., d'Hoore, W. & Deccache, A. (2007). Patient empowerment in theory and practice: Polysemy or cacophony? Patient Education and Counseling, 66, 13-20. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2006.09.008
Bolton, B. & Brookings, J. (1998). Development of a measure of intrapersonal empowerment. Rehabilitation Psychology, 43, 131-142. doi:10.1037/0090-5550.43.2.131
Castelein, S., van der Gaag, M., Bruggeman, R., van Busschbach, J. T. & Wiersma, D. (2008). Measuring empowerment among people with psychotic disorders: A comparison of three instruments. Psychiatric Services, 59, 1338-1342. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.59.11.1338
Chamberlin, J. (1997). A working definition of empowerment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 20, 43-46.
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385-396. doi:10.2307/2136404
Corrigan, P. W., (2006). Impact of consumer-operated services on empowerment and recovery of people with psychiatric disabilities. Psychiatric Services, 57, 1493-1496. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.57.10.1493
Corrigan, P. W., Faber, D., Rashid, F. & Leary, M. (1999). The construct validity of empowerment among consumers of mental health services. Schizophrenia Research, 38, 77-84. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(98)00180-7
Edwards, J. R. (1992). A cybernetic theory of stress, coping, and well-being in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 17, 238-274.
Edwards, J. R. & Baglioni, A. J. Jr. (1993). The measurement of coping with stress: Construct validity of the Ways of Coping Checklist and the Cybernetic Coping Scale. Work & Stress, 7, 17-31. doi:10.1080/02678379308257047
Fresco, D. M., Coles, M. E., Heimberg, R. G., Liebowitz, M. R., Hami, S., Stein, M. B. & Goetz, D. (2001). The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale: a comparison of the psychometric properties of self-report and clinician-administered formats. Psychological Medicine, 31, 1025-1035. doi:10.1017/S0033291701004056
Gibson, C. H. (1991). A concept analysis of empowerment. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16, 354-361. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.1991.tb01660.x
Goldberg, D. (1972). The detection of psychiatric illness by questionnaire. London: Oxford University Press.
Guppi, A., Edwards, J. A., Brough, P., Peters-Bean, K. M., Sale, C. & Short, E. (2004). The psychometric properties of the short version of the Cybernetic Coping Scale: A multigroup confirmatory factor analysis across four samples. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 39-62. doi:10.1348/096317904322915900
Hasluck, C. (2004). Targeting services in the individual customer strategy: The role of profiling. A review of research evidence. Warwick, UK: Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick.
Kanfer, R., Wanberg, C. R. & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2001). Job search and employment: A personality-motivational analysis and meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 837-855. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.5.837
Kessler, R. C., Turner, J. B. & House, J. S. (1989). Unemployment, reemployment, and emotional functioning in a community sample. American Sociological Review, 54, 648-657. doi:10.2307/2095885
Kirsh, B. (2000). Factors associated with employment for mental health consumers. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 24, 13-21.
Kosciulek, J. F. & Merz, M. A. (2001). Structural analysis of the consumer-directed theory of empowerment. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 44, 209-216. doi:10.1177/003435520104400403
Latka, M. H., Metsch, L. R., Mizuno, Y., Tobin, K., Mackenzie, S., Arnsten, J. H. & Gourevitch, M. N. (2006). Unprotected sex among HIV-positive injection drug-using women and their serodiscordant male partners: role of personal and partnership influences. Journal of AIDS, 42, 222-228. doi:10.1097/01.qai.0000214813.50045.09
Levenson, H. (1973). Multidimensional locus of control in psychiatric patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 397-404. doi:10.1037/h0035357
Liebowitz, M. R. (1987). Social phobia. Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141-173.
Lucas, R. E., Clark, A. E., Georgellis, Y., & Diener, E. (2004). Unemployment alters the set point for life satisfaction. Psychological Science, 15, 8-13. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01501002.x
McKee-Ryan, F. M., Song, Z., Wanberg, C. R. & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: a meta-analytic study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 53-76. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.53
Perkins, D. D. (1995). Speaking truth to power: empowerment ideology as social intervention and policy. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 765-794. doi:10.1007/BF02506991
Provencher, H. L., Gregg, R., Mead, S. & Mueser, K. T. (2002). The role of work in the recovery of persons with psychiatric disabilities. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 26, 132-144. doi:10.2975/26.2002.132.144
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306
Rogers, E. S., Chamberlin, J., Ellison, M. L. & Crean, T. (1997). A consumer-constructed scale to measure empowerment among users of mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 48, 1042-1047.
Rogers, E. S., Ralph, R. O. & Salzer, M. S. (2010). Validating the Empowerment Scale among with a multi-site sample of consumers of mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 61, 933-936. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.9.933
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self Image. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Sapnas, K. G. & Zeller, R. A. (2002). Minimizing sample size when using exploratory factor analysis for measurement. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 10, 135–154. doi:10.1891/jnum.10.2.135.52552
Sarason, I. G., Levine, H. M., Basham, R. B. & Sarason, B. R. (1983). Assessing social support: the Social Support Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 127-139. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127
Sherer, M., Maddux, J. Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. (1982). The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663-671. doi:10.2466/pr0.1982.51.2.663
Spreitzer, G. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 1442-1465. doi:10.2307/256865
Taris, T. W. (2002). Unemployment and mental health: A longitudinal perspective. International Journal of Stress Management, 9, 43-57. doi:10.1023/A:1013067101217
Townsend, E. (1998). Good intentions overruled: A critique of empowerment in the routine organization of mental health services. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
Wallston, K. A., Wallston, B. S. & DeVellis, R. (1978). Development of the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MDHL) Scales. Health Education Monographs, 6, 160-170. doi:10.1177/109019817800600107
Wowra, S. A. & McCarter, R. (1999). Validation of the Empowerment Scale with an outpatient mental health population. Psychiatric Services, 50, 959-961.
Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 581-599. doi:10.1007/BF02506983
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Toward a theory of learned hopefulness: A structural model analysis of participation and empowerment. Journal of Research in Personality, 24, 71-86. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(90)90007-S
Zimmerman, M. A. & Rappaport, J. (1988). Citizen participation, perceived control, and psychological empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 725-750. doi:10.1007/BF00930023